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An area for future research is to infection cheap ciprofloxacin online mastercard investigate under what conditions these attributes are considered novel and positive bacteria 4 result in fecalysis buy 750 mg ciprofloxacin amex, and under what conditions they appear atypical and less positive antibiotic 3 pills order 250mg ciprofloxacin fast delivery. In sum antibiotics for dogs dosage buy ciprofloxacin cheap, however, most studies support a strong positive, linear relationship between typicality and affect, as long as the category has valued attributes. As mentioned in an earlier section, various measures (ideals, attribute structure, fuzzy-set measures) are correlated with global measures of prototypicality. Similar correlational studies have been used in studying the roles that context and goals play in altering category representations. The ideals measure captures the common goal(s) for both taxonomic and goal-derived categories (Barsalou, 1985; Loken & Ward, 1990). The attribute structure measure (Loken & Ward, 1990; Viswanathan & Childers, 1999) and fuzzy set measures (Viswanathan & Childers, 1999) capture the central tendency of categories, and feature elements can include both physical and nonphysical features of the category, as well as goals and/or image attributes. In the case of all three measures, the underlying attributes and goals are accessed via representations that are accessible for the category. Furthermore, because the attributes accessible in one context may differ from those accessible in another, the measures can accommodate and allow researchers to predict category fluctuations as a function of context. The majority of the research in consumer categorization has relied not on correlational methods, but on experimental methods. When investigating category inferences in the context of brand categories and brand extensions, for example, researchers have typically presented consumers with information about a new category member (the extension) and then asked them to provide one of several conceptually relevant responses. In these experiments, stimuli (extensions) and context information (brand category characteristics) are sampled or created such that the factors of interest that are being tested vary. Similar experimental methods have been used to examine the role of concepts in memory. Research on category expansion and flexibility has utilized measures of clustering and categorization/grouping as dependent variables. Finally, researchers who have focused on the question of category activation have used priming as a means of gaining insight into the relative accessibility of concepts for information processing. Morrin (1999), for example, used a priming and response time methodology to investigate what impact brand extensions had on the accessibility of parent brand associations (see also. An interesting question is whether a greater future focus on the modality-specific representation view of conceptual knowledge proposed by Barsalou (1999) will require a broadening of the methods used to examine concepts and categorization. During the subsequent two decades, consumer researchers have identified applications beyond traditional product categories that include brand categories, goal-related categories, cultural categories, and service employee categories, among others. Research has also furthered our understanding of factors that influence category inferences, specifically, inferences from category beliefs and attitudes to new category instances. Much of the work on category inferences has been conducted in the context of brand categories. Early research on the global construct of similarity gave way to more thoughtful analyses of the various dimensions of similarity relevant to understanding inferences from brand categories to new category members. Most research has examined category inferences pertaining to new category members (brand extensions), with relatively little research being conducted on factors that impact inferences between existing category members. For example how might advertising of Healthy Choice soups affect inferences about Healthy Choice frozen dinners Or, if one branded product (say, Healthy Choice soups) increases in quality over time, how will this affect inferences about the quality of other branded products. Consumer research on inferences has also found that information about new category members. Future research could also examine whether existing category members that are accessible and perceived negatively impact perceptions of the category as a whole. Also, the conditions under which representations of current category members are stable or unstable. Consumer research has also examined conditions under which a new category member (typically a brand extension) is likely to be accepted as a category member of a favorably viewed category. The extensive research on the relation between similarity (typicality) and affect generally shows a positive linear relationship between the two. Exceptions to this positive relationship occur, however, and a greater understanding of these contingencies would be useful. In conclusion, in the past two decades, consumer research on category representation and category inferences has yielded important theoretical and managerial insights.

The campaign used paid and donated spots on television and radio as well as newspaper and billboard ads virus international order 1000 mg ciprofloxacin otc, particularly in connection with sports and other events attracting large adolescent audiences antibiotic z pack and alcohol discount ciprofloxacin 250 mg mastercard. They demonstrated a 524 small but statistically significant increase in exposure to antibiotics for dogs amoxicillin buy cheap ciprofloxacin 1000mg line antismoking messages but no changes in attitudes or smoking behavior filamentous bacteria 0041 order 1000mg ciprofloxacin. This campaign, launched in the spring of 2000 and continued for three years, was phased out after state budget cuts. To evaluate the campaign, four cross-sectional surveys of approximately 1,100 12- to 17-year-olds were conducted between summer 2002 and winter 2003. The authors used several measures to test whether or not ending the campaign had a negative impact on outcomes: awareness of Target Market; smoking susceptibility ("if someone you thought was cool offered you a cigarette, would you smoke it One scale measured attitudes toward the tobacco industry (central to the campaign), one included traditional normative attitudes and beliefs, and the third reflected antitobacco empowerment. The results show that awareness of the advertising dropped from 59% to 50%, and awareness of the Target Market brand dropped from 85% to 57%. By the last survey, the two measures of smoking susceptibility increased, as did intentions to smoke in the next year. The Role of the Media comparison sample, it is difficult to know if the trends in Minnesota reflected, in part, a national trend. This assessment occurred before the implementation of most other statewide tobacco control activities and after an increase of 25 cents per pack in the state cigarette excise tax. For youth, posttest surveys were conducted 3, 7, and 12 months after baseline and 2, 6, and 11 months after the campaign launch. The authors used t-tests to evaluate differences between surveys and in the final survey and differences between those exposed and unexposed (self-report) to the media messages. However, these differences appear between the baseline and first posttest survey only after two months of exposure to the campaign. When authors analyzed outcomes in the 12-month survey for those who reported awareness of the campaign versus those who did not, they found conflicting results: those exposed to the campaign showed significantly more healthenhancing attitudes, but more nonsmokers indicated they were thinking about starting to smoke. The authors suggest that their measure for "thinking about starting" may not have been valid. Selective attention among nonsmokers susceptible to smoking may also explain this result. The results for the adult smoker surveys show an increase in awareness of campaign messages between the baseline and 12-month surveys, a modest but statistically significant decrease in antitobacco attitudes, and no difference in intentions to quit. No meaningful differences were found in the final survey between those reporting and those not reporting awareness of the campaign. Given the relatively short timeframe for the study and analyses that did not control for potentially confounding influences among those either reporting or not reporting exposure, it is not surprising that this study had mixed results. Hu and colleagues121 conducted a regression analysis of quarterly cigarette sales between 1980 and 1992 and mass media campaign expenditures, controlling for cigarette price excluding cigarette excise taxes, the amount of cigarette excise taxes, and time. They found a significant association between expenditures on mass media campaigns and declines in cigarette sales. Florida, Youth In addition to the evidence of effectiveness for the Florida "truth" campaign noted earlier in this chapter from longitudinal evaluations,96,97 Sly and colleagues96 used a before-and-after design with a comparison group to assess the effectiveness of the Florida "truth" campaign in the first year of the campaign. The central comparisons in this study are between independent cross-sectional samples of 12- to 17-year-olds in Florida and the rest of the United States (excluding Arizona, California, Massachusetts, and Oregon, which had preexisting campaigns) in April 1998 and May 1999. Key outcome measures included campaign-targeted beliefs and attitudes, smoking susceptibility, and behavior. Effectiveness of Media in Discouraging Smoking Behavior 1,800 and 1,000 for the Florida and national population samples, respectively. One year after the campaign was launched, 89% of Florida youth sampled reported seeing at least one of the Florida "truth" advertisements. At baseline, the level of agreement with beliefs and attitudes was similar between Florida and national youth for 9 of the 11 items.

Effects of brand local and nonlocal origin on consumer attitudes in developing countries bacteria listeria monocytogenes cheap 750 mg ciprofloxacin free shipping. The influence of interviewer and respondent psychological and behavioral variables on the reporting in household interviews antibiotic kills 99.9 bacterial population buy 250mg ciprofloxacin overnight delivery. Response style and cross-cultural comparisons of rating scales among East Asian and North American students antibiotic used for strep throat buy generic ciprofloxacin 750mg line. Assessing extreme and acquiescence response sets in cross-cultural research using structural equations modeling virus zoo cheap 500mg ciprofloxacin with visa. Lessons from the rich and famous: A cross-cultural comparison of celebrity endorsement in advertising. Are adolescents accurate in selfreport of frequencies of sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancies Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Cross-cultural measurements of psychological well-being: the psychometric equivalence of Cantonese, Vietnamese, and Laotian translations of the Affect Balance Scale. The role of regulatory focus in the experience and self-control of desire for temptations. Social status and psychological disorder: An issue of substance and an issue of method. An exploratory examination of the influence of national culture on cross-national product diff usion. Playing follow the leader: Status-determining traits in relation to collective efficacy across cultures. An alternate approach to assessing cross-cultural measurement equivalence in advertising research. Validity of drug use reporting in a high-risk community sample: A comparison of cocaine and heroin survey reports with hair tests. Speed/accuracy decisions in task performance: Built-in trade-off or separate strategic concerns Spontaneous inferences from cultural cues: Varying responses of cultural insiders, and outsiders. The implications of gender differences in collective versus relational interdependence for affect, behavior, and cognition. Links between race/ethnicity and cultural values as mediated by racial/ethnic identity and moderated by gender. Effects of language and meaningfulness on the use of extreme response style by Spanish-English bilinguals. Persuasion and culture: Advertising appeals in individualistic and collectivistic societies. Component ideas of individualism, collectivism, and social organization: An application in the study of Chinese culture. Cultural differences and advertising expression: A comparative content analysis of Japanese and U. Cultural identity and dynamic construction of the self: collective duties and individual rights in Chinese and American cultures. Report of the Advanced Research Seminar on Cognitive Aspects of Survey Methodology. Print advertising at the component level: A cross-cultural comparison of the United States and Japan. Cultural variability in the effects of question design features on respondent comprehension of health surveys. Social cognition and responses to survey questions among culturally diverse populations.

In two studies (a large-scale survey with a representative sample of American adults and an experiment with students) they find support for this notion for two of the three collective-oriented values studied virus x 1948 order genuine ciprofloxacin online, namely infection 8 weeks after c section purchase 500mg ciprofloxacin with amex, religious and family values treatment for uti macrobid buy cheapest ciprofloxacin and ciprofloxacin, although not for community values safe antibiotics for sinus infection while pregnant purchase ciprofloxacin online now. The foregoing results show mostly negative affective implications of particular goals and goal setting situations, and more research about potential positive implications would be welcome. First, affect experienced during goal striving provides information about goal progress, and directs and energizes future goal striving (endogenous affective influence). Second, affect that is unrelated to the process of goal pursuit can influence future goal striving (exogenous affective influence). Third, goal striving may be successful or unsuccessful, thus inducing positive or negative affective states as a function of the goal outcome (affective output). We focus on the first two functions because they exert an important influence on current goal pursuit, and also because affect-as-output has been documented in detail by emotion theorists in psychology and marketing (Bagozzi, Gopinath, & Nyer, 1999; Frijda, 1986; Gross, 1998). Influence of Endogenous Affect on Goal Striving Affect arises when goal progress is thwarted or facilitated. But how does affect arise during goal striving, which types of affect are generated, and how does affect influence goal striving Theories of affect are often not very precise about how goal progress leads to affect (Frijda, 1986; Lazarus, 1991; Roseman, Antoniou, & Jose, 1996; Stein, Trabasso, & Liwag, 1993). The theory argues that progress at a rate higher than some standard generates positive affect. This implies that somebody might be making progress toward a goal, but if the progress is slower than expected, the affect experienced could still be negative. There are at least three possibilities about how goal progress or lack thereof can induce affect (Carver et al. First, the absolute rate of progress may elicit affect such that any movement toward (away from) an approach (avoidance) goal leads to positive affect. Second, the relative rate of progress may elicit affect: the faster one moves toward (away from) an approach (avoidance) goal, the more likely the experience of positive affect and the greater its intensity. Alternatively, the movement may be compared to an expected, acceptable, or desired rate of movement, and the nature and intensity of affect depends on the speed of movement relative to the chosen standard. Third, changes in the rate of progress may elicit affect such that if the movement toward (away from) an approach (avoidance) goal accelerates over time, positive affect will be generated. Hsee and Abelson (1991) and Hsee, Salovey, and Abelson (1994) have provided support for the affective implications of all three aspects of goal progress using satisfaction with various outcomes as the criterion. Boldero and Francis (2002) speculate that in the case of what they call standards. Initially, the focus in goal theory was on the overall valence of the affective state, either positive or negative (Carver, Lawrence, & Scheier, 1996). As a case in point, regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) specifies that if people are doing well in their approach strivings. The affect-as-feedback function is essentially retrospective, whereas the affect-as-volition function is prospective. This is because the experience of specific affect does not only comprise thoughts and feelings but also so-called emotivational goals and action tendencies (Frijda, 1986; Roseman, Antoniou, & Jose, 1996). For example, the experience of regret activates a person to try to undo a behavior or its undesirable outcomes. The affect-as-feedback and affect-as-volition functions in goal striving are integrated in the work of Stein (Stein, Liwag, & Wade, 1996; Stein, Trabasso, & Liwag, 1993) on the unfolding of emotional experiences over time. The theory proposes a limited number of goal-outcome-goalrevision combinations, each with a distinct corresponding emotion. A precipitating event that is seen as facilitating or obstructing a goal, along with an evaluation of certainty of goal success or goal failure, causes an emotion. Specifically, being certain about attaining something desirable or not attaining something undesirable leads to happiness; not attaining something desirable or experiencing something undesirable lead to sadness and anger; and not wanting an undesirable uncertain outcome or wanting a desirable uncertain outcome leads to fear. Depending on the emotion, a goal to attain, maintain, reinstate or avoid is generated, or the goal is substituted or abandoned.

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