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Match the cell cycle phase to the major cellular events by completing table below with the provided cell cycle phases antibiotic kidney stones order 960mg bactrim with mastercard. Label each of the following drawings of cells in different stages of mitosis and cytokinesis antibiotic unasyn buy bactrim now. Lesson 3: Histology ­ Epithelial & Connective Tissues Created by Dan McNabney Introduction In this lesson you will describe what a tissue is bacteria 4 conditions cheap bactrim 480 mg on-line, define each of the four primary tissues types infection japanese horror buy 480mg bactrim with mastercard, and explore epithelial and connective tissues in detail. Define histology Describe a tissue as part of the anatomical organization of the body List and define the four primary tissue types List and describe all of the sub-types for epithelial and connective tissues Identify each of the epithelial and connective tissue types and sub-types via a picture or diagram List an example of a location for each tissue sub-type Summarize the function for each tissue sub-type Describe the structural modifications that contribute to specific function for each tissue type & sub-type Identify the major structures of the cells in the tissues observed ­ nuclei, cell membrane/cilia, extracellular material (fibers and matrix), specialized arrangements of cells the term tissue is used to describe a group of cells found together in the body. Although there are many types of cells in the human body, they are organized into four broad categories of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous (Figure 3. Each of these tissue types is characterized by specific functions that contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the human body. Epithelial tissue, also referred to as epithelium, refers to the sheets of cells that cover exterior surfaces of the body, lines internal cavities and passageways, and forms certain glands. Connective tissue, as its name implies, binds the cells and organs of the body together and functions in the protection, support, and integration of all parts of the body. Just as knowing the structure and function of cells helps you in your study of tissues, knowledge of tissues will help you understand how organs function. Epithelial and connective tissues will be covered in this lesson while muscle and nervous tissues will be covered in the next lesson. Epithelial Tissue Most epithelial tissues are essentially large sheets of cells covering all the surfaces of the body exposed to the outside world and lining the outside of organs. Other areas include the airways, the digestive tract, as well as the urinary and reproductive systems, all of which are lined by an epithelium. Hollow organs and body cavities that do not connect to the exterior of the body, which includes, blood vessels and serous membranes, are lined by endothelium (plural = endothelia), which is a type of epithelium. Epithelial tissue is highly cellular, with little or no extracellular material present between cells. All epithelia share some important structural and functional features that define epithelial tissue: Polarity - Epithelial cells exhibit polarity with differences in structure and function between the exposed or apical-facing surface of the cell and the basal surface close to the underlying body structures. Certain organelles are segregated to the basal sides, whereas other organelles and extensions, such as cilia, when present, are on the apical surface. Supported by connective tissue ­ the basement membrane, a combination of the basal and reticular laminas, connects epithelial tissues underlying connective tissues to provide structural and functional support. The epithelial layer secretes the basal lamina, a mixture of glycoproteins and collagen, which connects to a reticular lamina secreted by the underlying connective tissue. Avascular - Epithelial tissues are nearly completely avascular, meaning that they do not contain blood vessels. All materials that enter or leave the epithelial layer must come by diffusion or absorption from underlying tissues or the surface. Innervated ­ Most epithelial tissues are supplied by nervous tissue to allow interaction with the external environment. Regeneration - Many epithelial tissues are capable of rapidly replacing damaged and dead cells. Sloughing off of damaged or dead cells is a characteristic of surface epithelium and allows our airways and digestive tracts to rapidly replace damaged cells with new cells. The cells of an epithelium act as gatekeepers of the body controlling permeability and allowing selective transfer of materials across a physical barrier. Some epithelia often include structural features that allow the selective transport of molecules and ions across their cell membranes. Many epithelial cells are also capable of secretion and release mucous and specific chemical compounds onto their apical surfaces. Cells lining the respiratory tract secrete mucous that traps incoming microorganisms and particles. Classification of Epithelial Tissues Epithelial tissues are classified according to the shape of the cells and number of the cell layers formed (Figure 3. Cell shapes can be squamous (flattened and thin), cuboidal (boxy, as wide as it is tall), or columnar (rectangular, taller than it is wide). Similarly, the number of cell layers in the tissue can be one-where every cell rests on the basal lamina-which is a simple epithelium, or more than one, which is a stratified epithelium and only the basal layer of cells rests on the basal lamina. Pseudostratified (pseudo- = "false") describes tissue with a single layer of irregularly shaped cells that give the appearance of more than one layer.

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Specialized effectors consist of the muscles or glands within the dermis that respond to motor (efferent) impulses transmitted through the autonomic nervous system antibiotics for chest acne purchase bactrim cheap online. Several types of cutaneous sensory (afferent) receptors respond to tactile (touch) antibiotics for dogs cephalexin side effects purchase bactrim overnight, pressure antibiotics with anaerobic coverage purchase 960 mg bactrim amex, temperature antibiotics for uti bladder infection bactrim 960mg free shipping, tickle, or pain stimuli. Certain areas of the body, such as palms, soles, lips, and external genitalia, have a high concentration of sensory receptors and are therefore particularly sensitive to touch. A patient should be able to perceive two points of touch as separate when the points are very close together on the face or hands. The ability to distinguish two close points by touch is greatly reduced on the back, however. A lack of sensitivity in certain areas of the body may indicate nerve damage due to disease or injury. An autonomic vasoconstriction or vasodilation will, respectively, shunt blood away from the superficial dermal arterioles or permit it to flow more freely. Blood flow in response to thermoregulatory stimuli can vary from 1 to 150 mL/min for each 100 g of skin. A cold, bluish, or grayish skin occurs when the arterioles are constricted and the capillaries dilated; when both are dilated, the skin is warm and ruddy. Shock is a sudden disturbance of mental equilibrium accompanied by acute peripheral circulatory failure due to marked hypotension (low blood pressure). Shock may be caused by loss of blood (from hemorrhage), diffuse systemic vasodilation, and/or inadequate cardiac function. Decubitus ulcers (bedsores) are ulcerated wounds that may occur in debilitated patients who lie in one position for extended periods of time. They are caused by vasocompression in the skin overlying bony prominenees-such as at the hip, heel, elbow, or shoulder-making it difficult for the tissue to heal. Periodically changing the position of the patient and daily messaging will minimize the occurrence of bedsores. The collagen and elastic proteins that give the dermis its tensile strength break down, and the skin becomes wrinkled and loses its tone. Structures that reside in the dermis, such as the hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, are also lost. Elderly individuals therefore tend to have soft, papery skin that is dry and relatively hairless. Objective F Su To describe hair, nails, sebaceous glands, sudoriferous glands, and ceruminous glands. Hair, nails, and the three kinds of exocrine glands (glands that secrete a product through a duc- rvey tule) form from the epidermal skin layer and are therefore of ectodermal derivation. These structures develop as down-growths of germinal epidermal cells into the vascular dermis, where they receive sustenance and mechanical support. The hair follicle is the germinal epithelial layer that has grown down into the dermis (fig. The shaft of the hair is the dead, visible, projecting portion; the root of the hair is the living portion within the hair follicle; and the bulb of the hair is the enlarged base of the root of the hair that receives nutrients and is surrounded by sensory receptors. Each hair consists of an inner medulla, a median cortex, and an outer cuticle layer. A pigment with an iron base (trichosiderin) causes red hair; gray or white hair is due to a decrease in pigment production and air spaces between the three layers of the shaft of the hair. Each hair follicle has an associated arrector pili muscle (smooth muscle) that responds involuntarily to thermal or psychological stimuli, causing the hair to be pulled into a more vertical position. The primary function of hair in humans is protection, although its effectiveness is limited. Hair on the scalp and eyebrows protects against sunlight, and hair in the nostrils and the eyelashes protects against airbome particles. An important secondary function of hair is as a means of individual recognition and sexual attraction.

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The difference in frequencies is because human movement generally has a low-frequency content and noise is at a higher frequency virus ti snow purchase discount bactrim line. The above equation can now be differentiated to give velocity (v) iv antibiotics for sinus infection bactrim 480 mg otc, which in turn can be differentiated to give acceleration (a) antibiotics for recurrent sinus infection discount 960 mg bactrim visa. The noise in the acceleration data has the same amplitude antibiotics listed by strength buy bactrim 480 mg overnight delivery, 322, as the signal, which is an intolerable error (Figure 4. Unless the errors in the displacement data are reduced by smoothing or filtering, they will lead to considerable inaccuracies in velocities and accelerations and any other derived data. Data smoothing, filtering and differentiation Much attention has been paid to the problem of removal of noise from discretely sampled data in sports biomechanics. Solutions are not always (or entirely) satisfactory, particularly when transient signals, such as those caused by foot strike or other impacts, are present. Noise removal is normally performed after reconstruction of the movement coordinates from the image coordinates because, for three-dimensional studies, each set of image coordinates does not contain full information about the movement coordinates. However, the noise removal should be performed before calculating other data, such as segment orientations and joint forces and moments. The reason for this is that the calculations are highly non-linear, leading to non-linear combinations of random noise, which can adversely affect the separation of signal and noise by low-pass filtering. The first or last of these are used in most commercial quantitative analysis packages. The two filtering techniques (Fourier truncation and digital filters) were devised for periodic data, where the pattern of movement is cyclical, as in Figure 4. Sporting activities that are cyclic, such as running, are obviously periodic, and some others can be considered quasi-periodic. Problems may be encountered in trying to filter non-periodic data, although these may be overcome by removing any linear trend in the data before filtering; this makes the first and last data values zero. The Butterworth filter often creates fewer problems here than Fourier truncation, but neither technique deals completely satisfactorily with constant acceleration motion, as for the centre of mass when a sports performer is airborne. A poor choice can result in some noise being retained if the filter cut-off frequency is too high, or some of the signal being rejected if the cut-off frequency is too low. As most human movement is at a low frequency, a cut-off frequency of between 4 and 8 Hz is often used. Lower cut-off frequencies may be preferable for slow events such as swimming, and higher ones for impacts or other rapid energy transfers. The cut-off frequency should be chosen to include the highest frequency of interest in the movement. As filters are sometimes implemented as the ratio of the cut-off to the sampling frequency in commercially available software, an appropriate choice of the latter might need to have been made at an earlier stage. The frame rate used when video recording, and the digitising rate (the sampling rate), must allow for these considerations. Instead, a technique should be used that involves a justifiable procedure to take into account the peculiarities of each new set of data. Attempts to base the choice of cut-off frequency on some objective criterion have not always been successful. The cut-off frequency should then be chosen so that the magnitudes of the two are similar. Another approach is called residual analysis, in which the residuals between the raw and filtered data are calculated for a range of cut-off frequencies: the residuals are then plotted against the cut-off frequency, and the best value of the latter is chosen as that at which the residuals begin to approach an asymptotic value, as in Figure 4. This is particularly necessary when the frequency spectra for the various points are different. Body segment inertia parameters Various body segment inertia parameters are used in movement analysis. The mass of each body segment and the segment centre of mass position are used in calculating the position of the whole body centre of mass (see Chapter 5). These values, and segment moments of inertia, are used in calculations of net joint forces and moments using the method of inverse dynamics. The most accurate and valid values available for these inertia parameters should obviously be used. Ideally, they should be obtained from, or scaled to , the sports performer being studied. The values of body segment parameters used in sports biomechanics have been obtained from cadavers and from living persons, including measurements of the performers being filmed.

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It now appears that increased intraabdominal pressure may help to stiffen the trunk to prevent the spine from buckling under compressive loads (31) antibiotics for lower uti purchase genuine bactrim. When an unstable load is assumed antibiotics jaundice purchase 960mg bactrim amex, there is also increased coactivation of antagonistic trunk muscles to contribute to spinal stiffening (122) bacteria you can eat order 480mg bactrim with mastercard. Research has shown that increases in intraabdominal pressure generate proportional increases in trunk extensor moment (58) virus new york buy 960 mg bactrim with mastercard. This is of value in performing a task such as lifting, because the spinal extensor muscles must generate sufficient extensor moment to overcome the flexion moment generated by the forward lean of the trunk, as well as by the load in front of the body being lifted. Carrying a loaded book bag or backpack loads the spine, with heavier loads resulting in postural adjustments including forward trunk and head lean and reduced lumbar lordosis. Research shows that placing the load low within the backpack and limiting the load to no more than 15% body weight minimizes these postural adaptations (19, 33). That is, at any given time, approximately 35% of people have not yet had back pain, but will have it in the future. Moreover, the incidence of low back pain in the United States has been steadily increasing for more than the past decade (46). This is likely a direct result of the increasing incidence of overweight and obesity, which is significantly associated with low back pain in both men and women and at all ages (56, 57). Although psychological and social components are a factor in some low back pain cases, mechanical stress typically plays a significant causal role in the development of low back pain (47). Perhaps because of their predominance in occupations involving the handling of heavy materials, men experience low back pain about four times more frequently than do women (71). This incidence increases with age and by age 16 approaches that found in adults, with back pain more common in boys than in girls (22). In contrast to the situation for adults, however, low back pain in children is associated with increased physical activity and stronger back flexor muscles (87). The main causes of low back pain in children are believed to be musculotendinous strains and ligamentous sprains (87). Not surprisingly, athletes have a much higher incidence of low back pain than do nonathletes, with over 9% of college athletes in different sports receiving treatment for low back pain (55, 79, 85). In some sports, such as gymnastics, as many as 85% of the participants experience low back pain (116, 117). High incidences of low back pain have been found in workers who sit for prolonged periods and in those unable to sit at all during the work day (75). High-risk occupations for the development of low back pain, in order of frequency, include laborers, truck drivers, garbage collectors, warehouse workers, mechanics, nursing aides, materials handlers, lumber workers, practical nurses, and construction laborers (110). Cigarette smokers have an increased incidence of low back pain compared to nonsmokers, possibly due to the contributions of habitual smoking to disc degeneration (44). Accidental low back pain is often associated with working in an unnatural posture, with sudden and unexpected motions, and with working single-handed (3, 131). Work involving dynamic motion in multiple planes is also associated with significantly increased risk for developing low back pain (34). As discussed in Chapter 3, loading patterns that injure biological tissues may involve one or a few repetitions of a large load or numerous repetitions of a small load. A factor recently implicated in our evolving understanding of low back injuries is the relative stability of the spine. In the absence of contraction of the surrounding musculature, buckling of the lumbar spine occurs under compressive loads as small as 4 N (41). Although bone structure, intervertebral discs, and ligaments all contribute to spinal stability, it is the surrounding muscles that have been shown to be the primary contributors to spinal stability (41). Recent research suggests that coactivation of spinal agonists and antagonists serves to increase the stiffness of the motion segments and enhance spinal stability (48, 50). Only relatively modest levels of coactivation of the paraspinal and abdominal wall muscles are needed to provide adequate spinal stability for daily living tasks, however (32). Accordingly, McGill advocates training the trunk muscles for endurance rather than for strength as a prophylactic for low back injury (78). Fatigue of the spinal extensor muscles with concomitantly reduced force output has been shown to increase the bending moment on the lumbar spine and also to reduce the ability of these muscles to protect the spine (36, 37). Although injuries and some known pathologies may cause low back pain, 60% of low back pain is idiopathic, or of unknown origin. The risk factors for chronic disability due to low back pain include involvement of the spinal nerve roots, substantial functional disability, widespread pain, and previous injury with an extended absence from work (120). However, most low back pain is self-limiting, with 75% of cases resolving within three weeks and a recovery rate of over 90% within two months, whether treatment occurs or not (25).